New data on sustainable oceans, plastics and trade of biodiversity-based products offer a tool for global action

The Bridgetown Covenant -—
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—- recognises the importance of conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas and marine resources, including addressing the discharge of plastic litter and other waste in oceans and significantly reducing marine pollution of all kinds and ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns. It also calls for greater understanding of the ocean economy, as initially defined by -—
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Ocean economy provides livelihoods for millions

The value of the ocean economy is estimated between US$3 and 6 trillion and is expected to double by 2030 -—
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—-. It provides at least 150 million direct jobs, including in activities like fishing, aquaculture, shipping, tourism, offshore wind energy, oil and gas, mining and marine biotechnology -—
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—-. Unfortunately, the health of our oceans has reached a tipping point. The oceans are key to the wellbeing of people and the planet as they cover over 70 per cent of earth’s surface and are home to 50-80 per cent of life on earth -—
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—-. We need a change of course in how we protect the ocean and marine resources from the threats of climate change, plastic and other pollution, and from overfishing. The ocean economy is central to global food security and the livelihoods of people across countries.

In 2021, exports of ocean goods and services totalled US$1.6 trillion, each worth over US$800 billion (Figure 1). Developed economies accounted for 58 per cent of ocean trade and developing economies for 42 per cent. The COVID-19COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the strain of coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 discovered in December 2019. Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses which may cause illness in animals or humans. In humans, several coronaviruses are known to cause respiratory infections ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). The most recently discovered coronavirus causes coronavirus disease COVID-19 -—
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—-. crisis showed the potential and resilienceThe ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate, adapt to, transform and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions through risk management -—
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—-. of some sectors and revealed the vulnerability of others. Services made up 60 per cent of global ocean exports before the pandemicCommonly described by the WHO as ‘the worldwide spread of a new disease’, no strict definition is provided. In 2009, they set out the basic requirements for a pandemic: • New virus emerges in humans
• Minimal or no population immunity
• Causes serious illness; high morbidity/mortality
• Spreads easily from person to person
• Global outbreak of disease.
The US Centre for Disease Control uses a similar approach, but with a reduced set of criteria. It is very difficult to gauge whether the spread of a disease should be termed an outbreak, epidemic or pandemic. In other words, when to declare a pandemic isn’t a black and white decision -—
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—-.. In 2021, despite over 27 per cent growth compared to 2020, the value of ocean service exports was still notably below the pre-pandemic level. However, exports of ocean-based goods showed remarkable resilience during the crisis, falling by just 3 per cent in 2020, and rising to a new high in 2021.

The two largest components of the ocean services are maritime and coastal tourism, and freight transport. These make up 84 per cent of total ocean service exports. Freight reached a new high in 2021, while tourism was still drastically down on pre-pandemic times (Figure 2).

Ocean economies in LDCs and SIDS still recovering from the pandemic

Asia is the largest exporter of ocean goods and services with US$706.6 billion in 2021, closely followed by Europe at US$664.3 billion, and the Americas at US$198.7 billion (Figure 3). Africa and Oceania were notably smaller exporters of ocean goods and services in 2021. Most regions saw high growth rates in 2021 as the ocean economy recovered from the pandemic, with over 20 per cent increases for the top three exporter regions. For Africa, exports only increased by 1 per cent in 2021, and decreased in Oceania by nearly 10 per cent. The COVID-19 pandemic hit hard the ocean exports of LDCsLeast developed country and SIDSSmall island developing states (SIDS) were recognized as a distinct group of developing countries at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. More information on UNCTAD official page.. Especially ocean services exports, like tourism, which in 2021 remained significantly below pre-pandemic levels by nearly 60 per cent for LDCs and 14 per cent for SIDS.

Among developing economies, China was the leading exporter in the ocean economy. The top five developing economy exporters included also Singapore with US$80.8 billion, India with US$40.1 billion, Türkiye US$30.6 billion and Mexico US$30.0 billion (Figure 4), all with a notably large share of ocean service exports.

China (US$151 billion), Germany (US$77 billion), Republic of Korea (US$37 billion), United States of America (US$53 billion) and Japan (US$35 billion) are the leading exporters of ocean goods. Map 1 presents the bilateral import and export flows of ocean goods, and enables exploring of ocean trade flows between top three partners for the selected economies and flow.

Need for an urgent shift towards sustainable use of marine resources

The increasing unsustainable use of marine resources for economic activities combined with climate change, biodiversityBiodiversity refers to the diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems -—
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—-. loss, and pollution continue to challenge the health of oceans, seas and coasts -—
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Fisheries are a critical source of food and livelihoods for millions of people worldwide, particularly in developing economies. Yet, the sustainability of fisheriesSustainability of fisheries is measured by SDG indicator 14.4.1. A fish stock that can produce the maximum sustainable yield (MSY) is classified as biologically sustainable. In contrast, when the abundance of the fish stock falls below the MSY level, the stock is considered biologically unsustainable -—
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—-. and fish resources continues to decline, although at a slower pace over the past decade. In 2019, sustainable fisheries accounted for just under 0.1 per cent of global GDPGross domestic product (GDP) is an aggregate measure of production, income and expenditure of an economy. As a production measure, it represents the gross value added, i.e., the output net of intermediate consumption, achieved by all resident units engaged in production, plus any taxes less subsidies on products not included in the value of output. As an income measure, it represents the sum of primary incomes (gross wages and entrepreneurial income) distributed by resident producers, plus taxes less subsidies on production and imports. As an expenditure measure, it depicts the sum of expenditure on final consumption, gross capital formation (i.e., investment, changes in inventories, and acquisitions less disposals of valuables) and exports after deduction of imports -—
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—-.¹, with SIDS (0.46 per cent) and LDCs (0.88) ranking significantly higher than Northern America (0.02) and Europe (0.03 per cent of GDP) -—
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The proportion of fish stocks within biologically sustainable levels has dropped drastically from 90 per cent in 1974 to 64.6 per cent in 2019, according to SDGSustainable Development Goal indicator 14.4.1 -—
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—-, with significant regional variations. The Southeast Pacific (66.7 per cent) surpassed the Mediterranean and the Black Sea (66.3 per cent) as the marine region with the highest percentage of stocks fished at unsustainable levels. However, efforts towards sustainable management of fisheries is growing back, with sustainably fished stocks providing the majority (82.5%) of total fish landings in 2019, a 3.8% increase since 2017 -—
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—- estimates that rebuilding overfished stocks to a sustainable level could increase fisheries’ production by 16.5 million tons and support livelihoods, food security and nutrition of coastal communities. Many developing economies, in particular SIDS and LDCs, lack the capacity and regulations to manage the fishing industries which is a major constraint to ensuring sustainable fishery practices -—
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Furthermore, subsidies to industrial fishing affect the use of marine resources and harm vulnerable communities living along the coast, especially in developing economies. Moreover, the illegal, unreported, and unregulated fishing practices cause further damage worldwide. This type of fishing accounts for up to 26 million tons of fish catch annually, worth US$10 to 22 billion of unlawful or undocumented revenue -—
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Finding ways to replace unlawful and unsustainable use of marine resources with more sustainable activities is crucial. Seaweed, for instance, improving food security and primary-sector carbon emissions, offers increasing markets and potential for growth for developing economies -—
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—-. The Republic of Korea, Indonesia, Chile, China, and Ireland are the lead exporters of aquatic plants, seaweeds, and other algae -—
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—-. UNCTAD’s data also show that in 2021, the value of global exports of these products amounted to US$942.8 million, up by 13 per cent from 2020 and by one third from 2012.

The year 2022 marked significant developments in global action towards SDG 14, including the UN Environment’s -—
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—- mandate to develop an international treaty to end plastic pollution, the -—
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—- agreement against harmful fishery subsidies, the -—
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—- agreement for a loss and damage fund, the -—
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—- post-2020 global biodiversity framework to conserve 30 per cent of land and the oceans by 2030. On the 19 of June 2023, a United Nations Treaty on Biodiversity on Areas Beyond National Jurisdiction was adopted in order to respond to the triply planetary crises as reflected on the ocean and seas. To support these and other crucial efforts, -—
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—- calls for a “Blue Deal” on trade and finance to accelerate the implementation of SDG 14, identified as the least funded goal of the 2030 Agenda. The “Blue Deal” would address transparency and a reform of non-tariff measuresNon-tariff measures (NTMs) are policy measures other than ordinary customs tariffs that can potentially have an economic effect on international trade in goods, changing quantities traded, or prices or both such as technical barriers to trade, price-control measures, etc. -—
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—- and fishery subsidies, social sustainability of aquaculture value chains, sustainable and resilient maritime transport, and reduced marine litter and plastic pollution.

Plastics trade at all-time high in 2021

Plastic is everywhere in our environment, including land, ocean, Arctic ice, and in almost everything we eat and inhale: the air, water, and food². According to research by -—
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—-, an estimated 11 MtMillion tons. Ton refers to metric ton, as in 1 000 kg, throughout the publication. of plastic enter the oceans every year, and plastics contribute significantly to greenhouse gas emissions and environmental and health challenges. Existing technologies could cut annual flows of plastic into the oceans by about 80 per cent in the next 20 years.

According to UNCTAD’s -—
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—- data, global exports of plastics, or goods made from plastic³, have more than doubled in value since 2005, reaching nearly US$1.2 trillion in 2021 (Figure 5). This amount is slightly lower than the value of total merchandise exports of China, the United States of America, or Germany, and for instance three times the GDP of Egypt, the host country of the COP27It is the 27th Conference of the Parties of the UNFCCC, held in November 2022 in Egypt. climate summit in 2022. The growth in volume has been slightly slower but followed a similar path, from 218 Mt in 2005 to 369 Mt in 2021. For illustration, it would take 18.4 million trucks, each carrying 20 tons, to deliver the 2021 global plastics exports to their destination, if carried on road. The queue of trucks would wrap around the globe over 13 times.

Plastics trade highly concentrated regionally

While a few key countries dominate trade across the plastics value chain, a variety of countries are active as both importers and exporters of plastic products , using plastic as a means to participate in global value chains and to add value to exports -—
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—-. Asia and Oceania account for half of global plastics exports equalling 185 Mt, while 28 per cent originate in Europe and 21 per cent in the Americas. African economies only account for less than 1 per cent of global plastics exports (Figure 6). Plastics imports are slightly less concentrated than exports, with Asia and Oceania receiving 39 per cent (123 Mt), Europe around 35 per cent, and the Americas 22 per cent of global plastics imports. Africa, a net importer of plastics, has a share of 3.5 per cent in global plastics imports.

Plastics trade makes a significant share of global trade in goods, over 5 per cent in 2021. The largest exporters of plastics in volume terms were China (70.1 Mt), Taiwan Province of China (13.2 Mt), Thailand (12.5 Mt), Saudi Arabia (12.0 Mt) and Singapore (7.0 Mt). Malaysia, India, the United Arab Emirates, Türkiye and Viet Nam are also within the global top ten. In 2021, total goods trade was most reliant on plastics in El Salvador, Sri Lanka, Luxembourg, Lesotho (based on 2020 data), Togo, Bahamas (based on 2020 data), Thailand and Serbia. In these economies, the plastics share exceeded 10 per cent (Map 2). Together they accounted for 3.4 per cent of global plastics exports.

Through the COVID-19 pandemic, plastics exports remained relatively resilient, dropping by 0.7 per cent only, followed by a 17 per cent growth in 2021 (Figure 7). This 2021 growth was driven by the nearly 60 per cent increase in manufactured plastics products in only one year. In 2021, 47 per cent of global plastics exports, 173 Mt, consisted of primary forms of plastic. In 2019, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, and the surge in final manufactured plastic goods, this figure had been 55 per cent.

Analyses of different plastics product types, as above, increase transparency and help to set baselines for policy commitments. Plastics data provide important insights regarding the future binding global agreement, mandated by the United Nations Environment Assembly -—
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—- to end plastic pollution. UNCTAD’s data -—
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—- enable detailed analysis of international trade over the life cycle of plastics – from the raw materials to the trade of final products and plastic waste – by product type, destination and source. These data contributed to the -—
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—- Informal Dialogue on Plastic Pollution and Environmentally Sustainable Plastics trade, in addition to data on 129 related measures reported by member states to WTOWorld Trade Organization by March 2021.

Plastic waste trade data reveal global imbalances

About 75 per cent of all the plastic ever produced has become waste -—
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—-, a trend that may continue unless binding global rules are established. The surge of international plastics trade could signal a mounting tide of plastic in our ocean. Despite efforts to reduce international trade on plastic waste, developed economies continued to be net exporters of plastic waste (Figure 8) accounting for nearly 80 per cent of the global plastic waste exports in 2021, and nearly 70 per cent of global plastic waste imports -—
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—-. However, the volume of exports of plastic waste has dropped in a decade from 15.1 Mt in 2011 to 5.5 in 2021, representing a 63 per cent decrease. This development has been significantly supported by the decision of China to ban imports of most plastic waste to the country in 2017 -—
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—-. China had been the main importer of plastic waste, in addition to being the largest producer.

Plastics disproportionately affect vulnerable communities. Exporting plastic waste to developing economies with insufficient infrastructure to manage the waste in an environmentally sound manner may increase burning of plastics which releases greenhouse gases, and the spreading of microplastics which harms ecosystems.

By embracing reusable, biodegradable and compostable plastic substitutes – such as natural fibres, agricultural waste, glass and aluminium – industries, businesses and consumers can help stem the tide of plastics crossing borders. UNCTAD has initially identified a total of 282 HS subheadings (6-digit level) for materials and products which can perform similar functions to plastics, and thus can be considered as substitutes. Preliminary estimates value the trade of plastic substitutes in 2020 at US$388 billion -—
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Trade of biodiversity-based products is increasing with large regional discrepancies

All people depend on biodiversity in their physical environment for their livelihood including nutrition, wellbeing, and health. This dependency is especially salient in rural areas where 79 per cent of the world’s poor and vulnerable live -—
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—-. The biodiversity today is the result of 4.5 billion years of evolution, over time increasingly affected by human activity -—
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—-. Biodiversity is declining faster currently than at any time in human history -—
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In the past 50 years, global GDP has doubled, and the use of natural resources more than tripled -—
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—-. The extraction and processing of materials, fuels and food for our consumption contribute to over 90 per cent to biodiversity loss globally. Consumption has grown, and is largely unequally distributed throughout the world, with wide variations in lifestyles and access to resources across and within regions -—
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—-. Unsustainable use of earth’s resources is affected by many social and economic drivers, including global trade. Trade can be a driver of unsustainable use of resources but can also be harnessed for the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, and for a fairer and more equitable sharing of the benefits from trade -—
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According to UNCTAD’s data, the global value of exports of biodiversity-based goods reached US$3.7 trillion in 2021 (Figure 9). The conservation of biodiversity and the sustainable use and trade of these goods can provide countries with valuable opportunities for economic development and improvement of livelihoods. This trade remained relatively resilient throughout the COVID-19 pandemic across regions and grew by a staggering 18 per cent from 2020 to 2021. Regions, however, are highly unequally involved in the trade of biodiversity-based products. Europe was the largest exporter of such products, with exports amounting to US$1.8 trillion, which accounted for nearly a half of global of biodiversity-based products exports in 2021. Among regions, the share of Asia and Oceania in global of biodiversity-based products exports increased most, with an annual growth of 23.8 per cent in 2021, exceeding US$1 trillion for the first time. The Americas followed suit, with US$744 billion. In Africa, the value of such exports represented US$65.8 billion, less than 2 per cent of global exports.

The three largest exporters account for 25 per cent of global exports of biodiversity-based products: China’s exports are valued at US$319.6 billion. Those of the United States of America amounted to US$301.4 billion and those of Germany to US$273.9 billion. Most of the top ten exporters are European, including the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with a share of 5.1 per cent of global exports, France (4.4 per cent), Italy (4.2 per cent), Spain (3.1 per cent) and Switzerland-Liechtenstein (3.0 per cent). Brazil (3.3 per cent) ranked sixth in 2021, and Canada eighth (3.1 per cent). India also finds its way to the global top ten with a share of 2.9 per cent of global biodiversity-based trade.

Trade of biodiversity-based products delivers essential goods across the world

Data on the trade of biodiversity-based goods consists of 1 814 different types of products derived from biodiversity resources -—
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—-. The most traded products reflect the crucial nature of this trade to provide nutrition, medication and housing.

Food and beverages formed the largest item of global exports of biodiversity-based products with a 36.7 per cent share in 2021, valued at US$1 358.3 billion (Table 1). Pharmaceuticals took up 15 per cent of such trade at US$563.3 billion and wood and derived products stood at 13 per cent, reaching a global value of US$486.8 billion. These exports were dominated by Europe with a share of 75 per cent of the global market. Switzerland-Liechtenstein and Germany covered 15.9 per cent each. Among other products, natural fibers, natural ingredients and cosmetics were also significantly traded.

UNCTAD provides interactive maps and charts to help users explore trends of bilateral trade of biodiversity-based products and detailed product data over time here.

Notes

1. Based on SDG Indicator 14.7.1 -—
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2. Referring to different size classes of plastic pollution: macroplastics, microplastics and nanoplastics -—
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3. This upsurge of plastics in global trade includes products made from plastic, like many children’s toys, products with plastic components, such as electronic gadgets and products wrapped in plastic – everything from office furniture to DVDs to snacks. It also includes the raw materials used to make plastics, mainly fossil fuels, and the waste shipped overseas that contain plastics, such as discarded smartphones.

References

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