Oceans, plastics and biotrade offer opportunities, challenges remain
The Bridgetown Covenant -—
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—- recognises the importance of conservation and sustainable use of oceans, seas and marine resources, including addressing the discharge of plastic litter and other waste in oceans and significantly reducing marine pollution of all kinds and ensuring sustainable consumption and production patterns. It also calls for greater understanding of the ocean economy, as initially defined by -—
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Table of contents
Ocean economy provides livelihoods for millions
The value of the ocean economy is estimated between $3 and $6 trillion and is expected to double by 2030 -—
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—-. It provides at least 150 million direct jobs, including in activities like fishing, aquaculture, shipping, tourism, offshore wind energy, oil and gas, mining and marine biotechnology -—
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—-. Unfortunately, the health of our oceans has reached a tipping point. They are key to the wellbeing of people and the planet as they cover over 70 per cent of earth’s surface and are home to 50-80 per cent of life on earth -—
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—-. We need a change of course in how we protect the ocean and marine resources from the threats of climate change, plastic and other pollution, and from overfishing. The ocean economy is central to global food security and people’s livelihoods.
In 2022, the value of ocean goods and services exports reached almost $2 trillion (figure 1). Developed economies accounted for 57 per cent of ocean trade. The COVID-19COVID-19 is an infectious disease caused by the strain of coronavirus SARS-CoV-2 discovered in December 2019. Coronaviruses are a large family of viruses which may cause illness in animals or humans. In humans, several coronaviruses are known to cause respiratory infections ranging from the common cold to more severe diseases such as Middle East Respiratory Syndrome (MERS) and Severe Acute Respiratory Syndrome (SARS). The most recently discovered coronavirus causes coronavirus disease COVID-19 -—
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—-. crisis showed the potential and resilienceThe ability of a system, community or society exposed to hazards to resist, absorb, accommodate, adapt to, transform and recover from the effects of a hazard in a timely and efficient manner, including through the preservation and restoration of its essential basic structures and functions through risk management -—
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—-. of some sectors and revealed the vulnerability of others. Services made up over 60 per cent of global ocean exports before the pandemicCommonly described by the WHO as ‘the worldwide spread of a new disease’, no strict definition is provided. In 2009, they set out the basic requirements for a pandemic: • New virus emerges in humans
• Minimal or no population immunity
• Causes serious illness; high morbidity/mortality
• Spreads easily from person to person
• Global outbreak of disease.
The US Centre for Disease Control uses a similar approach, but with a reduced set of criteria. It is very difficult to gauge whether the spread of a disease should be termed an outbreak, epidemic or pandemic. In other words, when to declare a pandemic isn’t a black and white decision -—
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—-.. In 2022, the growth of ocean services has been remarkable. The value of exports surpassed pre-pandemic levels and hit a new record high at almost $1.2 trillion. Exports of ocean-based goods showed remarkable resilience during the crisis, rising by 18 per cent in 2021 compared to 2020, and remained stable during 2022.
Figure 1. Exports of ocean services hit a new record high in 2022, surpassing pre-pandemic levelsSource: UNCTAD calculations based on UNCTADstat -—
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Note: Refers to ocean economy goods and services as classified by -—
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—- based on HSThe Harmonized System (HS) is an international nomenclature developed by the World Customs Organization, which is arranged in six-digit codes allowing all participating countries to classify traded goods on a common basis. Beyond the six-digit level, countries are free to introduce national distinctions for tariffs and many other purposes. codes and EBOPS-10 Classification.
The two largest components of ocean services are freight transport and maritime and coastal tourism. Together, they made up 88 per cent of total ocean service exports. Freight transport reached a new high in 2022, while tourism significantly recovered, increasing by 99 per cent in 2022 compared to 2021, although it has not yet returned to pre-pandemic levels (figure 2).
Figure 2. Marine and coastal tourism still recovering from the pandemic, while freight transport services stronger than everSource: UNCTAD preliminary calculations.
Note: Refers to ocean economy services as classified by -—
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—- based on EBOPS-10 Classification.
Ocean economies in LDCs and SIDS still recovering from the pandemic
Asia was the largest exporter of ocean goods and services with $706.6 billion in 2021, followed by Europe at $664.3 billion, and the Americas at $198.7 billion (figure 3). Africa and Oceania were significantly smaller exporters. Most regions saw high growth rates in 2021 as the ocean economy recovered from the pandemic, with over 20 per cent increases for the top three exporter regions. In contrast, Africa’s exports increased by only 1 per cent and Oceania’s decreased by nearly 10 per cent in 2021. The COVID-19 pandemic hit hard ocean exports for LDCsLeast developed country and SIDSSmall island developing states (SIDS) were recognized as a distinct group of developing countries at the Earth Summit in Rio de Janeiro in June 1992. More information on UNCTAD official page., with ocean services exports, like tourism, remaining significantly below pre-pandemic levels by nearly 60 per cent for LDCs and 14 per cent for SIDS.
Figure 3. Ocean exports dominated by Asia and Europe with an 85 per cent market share, 2021Source: UNCTAD calculations based on UNCTADstat -—
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Note: Data refer to ocean economy goods and services as classified by -—
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—- based on HS codes and EBOPS-10 Classification.
Among developing economies, China was the leading exporter in the ocean economy. The top five developing economy exporters also included Singapore at $80.8 billion, India at $40.1 billion, Türkiye at $30.6 billion and Mexico at $30.0 billion (figure 4), all with a notably large share of ocean service exports. Northern America drove the expansion of global service exports, almost doubling their value in 2022. Remarkably, Africa saw substantial growth in services exports, with a 50 per cent increase compared to 2021.
China ($151 billion), Germany ($77 billion), Republic of Korea ($37 billion), United States of America ($53 billion) and Japan ($35 billion) are the leading exporters of ocean goods. Map 1 presents the bilateral import and export flows of ocean goods, allowing exploration of ocean trade flows between the top three partners for selected economies.
Map 1. Bilateral trade flows of oceans goods, 2021Source: UNCTADstat -—
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Note: Top 5 countries globally for imports and exports of ocean goods are shown in the default selection.
High seaweed potential for nutrition security and environmental sustainability
The increasing unsustainable use of marine resources for economic activities, combined with climate change, biodiversityBiodiversity refers to the diversity within species, between species and of ecosystems -—
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—-. loss, and pollution, continues to challenge the health of oceans, seas and coasts -—
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—-. Balancing the preservation of marine biodiversity with providing food security and stable incomes for developing countries is more challenging than ever. However, diversifying the types, sources, and uses of marine resources can be a key strategy towards sustainability.
Seaweed offers an important opportunity for ocean economic and environmental sustainability -—
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—-. Algae, including seaweeds and microalgae, contribute nearly 30 per cent (wet weight) of world aquaculture production -—
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—-. They generate sustainable livelihoods for small-scale farmers and harvesters and potentially play a crucial role in mitigating climate change. Seaweed production requires fewer resources and production inputs, and its export faces lower barriers to market entry than traditional fisheries. Seaweed is highly versatile with applications ranging from human food consumption, including as functional food, to bio-fertilizers, cosmetics, pharmaceuticals, bio packaging, plastic substitutes and biofuel. It offers a growing market opportunity for developing economies and has great potential to empower women along the value chains.
The global market for seaweed has more than tripled in the last two decades, growing from $5 billion in 2000 to $17 billion in 2021, with global exports representing almost $1 billion in 2021 -—
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—-. Seaweed cultivation increased a thousandfold since 1950 -—
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—-, reaching over 35 million tons in 2021 (live weight) -—
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The seaweed industry shows large regional differences, with Asia dominating production. The Republic of Korea, China, and the Philippines are the leading exporters of seaweeds and other algae in the region. Chile and Ireland are among the top 5 exporters worldwide in 2022. Although Asia is a major importer of seaweed, the top ten importers are located outside the region, indicating a significant potential for regional market diversification.
Recent marine agreements show promise for ocean protection. In June 2023, member States formally adopted the High Seas Treaty, a historic agreement to protect marine biodiversity in international waters, after nearly two decades of negotiations. Given that the “high seas” constitute two-thirds of the ocean, this treaty, upon ratification, will provide vital protection against pollution, overfishing and habitat destruction in these critical areas. To support these and other crucial efforts, -—
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—- calls for a “Blue Deal” on trade and finance to accelerate the implementation of SDGSustainable Development Goal 14, identified as the least funded goal of the 2030 Agenda. The “Blue Deal” would address transparency and a reform of non-tariff measuresNon-tariff measures (NTMs) are policy measures other than ordinary customs tariffs that can potentially have an economic effect on international trade in goods, changing quantities traded, or prices or both such as technical barriers to trade, price-control measures, etc. -—
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—- and fishery subsidies, social sustainability of aquaculture value chains, sustainable and resilient maritime transport, and reduced marine litter and plastic pollution.
Despite 2022 slowdown, plastics trade continues to grow
Plastic is pervasive in our environment, found on land, in oceans, Arctic ice, and even in the air, water, and food we consume1. According to research by -—
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—-, an estimated 11 MtMillion tons. Ton refers to metric ton, as in 1 000 kg, throughout the publication. of plastic enter the oceans annually. Without urgent action, this amount could triple in the next twenty years, reaching an estimated 23 to 37 million metric tons annually -—
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—-. The societal cost of plastic pollution, emissions, and clean-up from plastics produced in 2019 alone could be as high as $3.7 trillion, exceeding India’s GDPGross domestic product (GDP) is an aggregate measure of production, income and expenditure of an economy. As a production measure, it represents the gross value added, i.e., the output net of intermediate consumption, achieved by all resident units engaged in production, plus any taxes less subsidies on products not included in the value of output. As an income measure, it represents the sum of primary incomes (gross wages and entrepreneurial income) distributed by resident producers, plus taxes less subsidies on production and imports. As an expenditure measure, it depicts the sum of expenditure on final consumption, gross capital formation (i.e., investment, changes in inventories, and acquisitions less disposals of valuables) and exports after deduction of imports -—
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According to UNCTAD’s -—
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—- data, global exports of plastics, or plastic goods2 have more than doubled in value since 2005, reaching over $1.2 trillion in 2022 (figure 4). This value is comparable to the total merchandise exports of China, the United States of America, or Germany, and is 2.4 times the GDP of the United Arab Emirates, host of the 2023 CoP28 climate summit. The volume of plastic exports grew from 218 Mt in 2005 to 344 Mt in 2022. To illustrate, it would take 17.2 million trucks, each carrying 20 tons, to deliver the 2022 global plastics exports to their destination, if carried on road.
Figure 4. Global plastics trade continues to thriveSource: UNCTAD calculations based on UNCTADstat -—
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Note: Data refer to plastic products and products containing plastics as identified by -—
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—- jointly with the Forum on Trade, Environment & the SDGs (TESS) at the Geneva Graduate Institute, based on HS codes.
While a few key countries dominate trade across the plastics value chain, many countries participate actively as both importers and exporters of plastic products, leveraging plastic to integrate into global value chains and enhance export value -—
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—-. In 2022, Asia and Oceania accounted for more than half of global plastics exports totalling 202 Mt, with Europe contributing 27 per cent and the Americas 12 per cent (a significant drop from 21 per cent in 2021). African economies represented less than 1 per cent of global plastics exports (figure 5). Conversely, plastics imports were slightly less concentrated than exports: Asia and Oceania received 41 per cent (130 Mt), Europe 33 per cent, and the Americas 22 per cent of global plastics imports. Africa, a net importer of plastics, accounted for a share of 4.8 per cent in global plastics imports.
Figure 5. Asia and Oceania accounted for half of global plastics exports, 2022Source: UNCTAD calculations based on UNCTADstat -—
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Note: Data refer to plastic products and products containing plastics, as identified by -—
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—- jointly with the Forum on Trade, Environment & the SDGs (TESS) at the Geneva Graduate Institute, based on HS codes.
Plastics trade comprises a significant share of global goods trade, representing almost 5 per cent of total merchandise exports in 2022 (map 2).
Map 2. Plastics intensity of exports by country, 2022Source: UNCTAD calculations based on UNCTADstat -—
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Note: Data refer to plastic products and products containing plastics, as identified by -—
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—- jointly with the Forum on Trade, Environment & the SDGs (TESS) at the Geneva Graduate Institute, based on HS codes.
Plastics exports remained relatively resilient during the COVID 19 pandemic and grew significantly in 2021. Although there was a slowdown in 2022, the growth in plastics exports remained noteworthy compared to 2019 (+7.2 per cent, see figure 6). The main drivers of this growth were manufactured plastics products, which increased from one-fourth of all exports in 2019 to one third by 2022. Primary forms of plastic still constituted the largest share, accounting for 48 per cent of all plastics exports at 164 Mt in 2022. In 2019, prior to the COVID-19 pandemic, this figure was 55 per cent.
Figure 6. Half of global exports of plastics consist of primary forms, but manufactured plastics is boomingSource: UNCTAD calculations based on UNCTADstat -—
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Note: Data refer to plastic products and products containing plastics as identified by -—
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—- jointly with the Forum on Trade, Environment & the SDGs (TESS) at the Geneva Graduate Institute, based on HS codes.
Analyses of different plastics product types, as above, increase transparency and help to set baselines for policy commitments. UNCTAD’s plastics data -—
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—- provide important insights, enabling detailed analysis of international trade over the life cycle of plastics – from the raw materials to the trade of final products and plastic waste – by product type, destination and source. These data can contribute to informing the development of the international legally binding instrument on plastic pollution, including in the marine environment, which UN Member States are committed to finalizing by 2024 -—
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Plastic waste trade data reveal global imbalances
About 75 per cent of all plastic ever produced has become waste -—
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—-, a trend likely to continue without binding global regulations. The surge in international plastics trade may indicate an increasing influx of plastic into our oceans. Despite efforts to reduce international plastic waste trade, developed economies remained net exporters of plastic waste (figure 7) accounting for over 80 per cent of global plastic waste exports in 2022, and 68 per cent of global plastic waste imports -—
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—-. However, the volume of plastic waste exports has declined over the past decade from 15.3 Mt in 2012 to 5.6 Mt in 2022, a decrease of 63 per cent. This decline was largely influenced by China’s decision to ban imports of most plastic waste in 2017 -—
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—-. China was previously the main importer of plastic waste, as well as the largest producer.
Figure 7. Developed economies continue as net exporters of plastic waste globallySource: UNCTAD calculations based on UNCTADstat -—
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Note: Data refer to plastic products and products containing plastics as identified by -—
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—- jointly with the Forum on Trade, Environment & the SDGs (TESS) at the Geneva Graduate Institute, based on HS codes.
Plastics have a disproportionate impact on vulnerable communities. Exporting plastic waste to developing economies lacking adequate infrastructure for environmentally sound waste management can lead to increased burning of plastics, releasing greenhouse gases, and the spread of microplastics that harm ecosystems.
To mitigate these impacts, industries, businesses and consumers can shift towards reusable, biodegradable, and compostable plastic substitutes, such as natural fibres, agricultural waste, glass, and aluminum. UNCTAD has identified 282 HS subheadings (6-digit level) for materials and products that can serve similar functions, as sustainable alternatives to plastics. Sustainable materials like bamboo, hemp, sand, and algae offer eco-friendly alternatives and present growing trade opportunities, especially for developing economies. In 2022, global trade in plastic substitutes amounted to approximately $557 billion. Around two-thirds of global exports of plastic substitutes consist of raw materials, primarily sourced from developing countries (UNCTAD’s calculations based on UN Comtrade Database -—
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Trade of biodiversity-based products is increasing with large regional discrepancies
Our planet faces a triple planetary crisis of climate change, pollution, and biodiversity loss, posing serious threats to society’s future -—
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—-. Biodiversity is essential for human livelihoods, providing nutrition, wellbeing, and health. This dependency is especially crucial in rural areas where 84 per cent of the world’s poor and vulnerable live -—
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—-. Biodiversity today reflects 4.5 billion years of evolution, increasingly impacted by human activities over time -—
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—-, and biodiversity is currently declining at an unprecedented rate in human history -—
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In the last 50 years, global GDP has doubled, and natural resource consumption more than tripled -—
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—-. The extraction, processing and consumption of materials, fuels and food contribute over 90 per cent of global biodiversity loss. Consumption patterns are markedly unequal globally, with rich countries using six times more resources and generating ten times the climate impacts compared to low-income countries -—
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—-. Unsustainable resource use is driven by various social and economic factors, including global trade. Production impacts occur where goods are physically produced, while consumption patterns affect environmental impacts throughout the supply chain and in regions where the goods and services are consumed. This disparity highlights the environmental impacts embodied in international trade -—
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—-. While trade can exacerbate unsustainable resource use, it also holds potential to promote biodiversity conservation, sustainable resource utilization, and more equitable distribution of trade benefits -—
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According to UNCTAD’s data, the global value of exports of biodiversity-based goodsThe biodiversity-based products considered by UNCTAD are all products with a biological origin, including plant and animal species as well as fungi found on land, water and air, and that meet at least one of the following criteria: • they are intrinsically and integrally based on biological resources themselves at a non- or low-processed stage (e.g., whole pineapples or ground coffee); • when used as inputs, they are processed products that solely or principally use biological resources-based ingredients (e.g., cotton shirts, wooden furniture, or chocolate bars); and • when they are derivatives, they are derived mainly from biological resource-based products (e.g., glycerol from natural oils and fats). In this understanding, goods produced or derived from the extraction of minerals, ores or metals, such as sands, oil and gas, are not considered biodiversity-based products. UNCTAD developed the Trade and Biodiversity product classification to provide member States and other stakeholders with public access to consistent, comparable, and comprehensive trade data related to products derived from biodiversity. The classification includes 1 814 different types of products derived from biodiversity resources. -—
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—- reached $3.4 trillion in 2022, slightly down from 2021 figures (figure 8). The conservation, sustainable use, and trade of these goods provide countries with valuable opportunities for economic development and improvement of livelihoods. This trade showed resilience during the COVID-19 pandemic, growing until 2021 and recording a moderate slowdown in 2022. The Americas, particularly South America, and to a lesser extent North America, were the only regions to record an increase in the value of biodiversity-based products’ exports, with a 7.8 per cent growth from 2021 to 2022. Despite a moderate downturn, Europe continued to lead exports of biodiversity-based products, totaling $1.75 trillion in 2022, accounting for more than half of global biodiversity-based products’ exports in 2022. Asia, however, saw a significant decline of over 31 per cent in these exports in 2022, dropping from nearly $10 trillion to $6.85 trillion. LDCs were most affected by this slowdown, experiencing a 56.4 per cent drop in biodiversity-based good exports in one year. In African countries, exports of biodiversity-based products continued to play a marginal role globally but were increasingly significant in the region as a share of commodity exports. Biotrade as a percentage of total trade has increased constantly, from 14.8 per cent in 2010 to 19.2 per cent in 2022.
Figure 8. Over time, Europe has been the largest biodiversity-based products’ exporter globallySource: UNCTAD calculations based on UNCTADstat -—
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Note: Data refer to biotrade goods as identified by -—
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—-, based on HS codes.
Based on available data, three largest exporters collectively accounted for almost 28 per cent of global exports of biodiversity-based products: in 2022, exports by the United States of America were valued at $332.9 billion, followed by China at $318.41 billion and Germany at $286.9 billion. Most of the top ten exporters are European countries, including the Kingdom of the Netherlands, with a share of 5.3 per cent of global exports, France (4.9 per cent), Italy (4.8 per cent), Spain (3.3 per cent) and Switzerland-Liechtenstein (3.2 per cent). Brazil (4.7 per cent) ranked seventh in 2022, and Canada eighth (3.2 per cent). India also secured a position in the global top ten with a share of 3.2 per cent of global biodiversity-based trade.
Trade of biodiversity-based products delivers essential goods across the world
UNCTAD developed the Trade and Biodiversity (TraBio) statistical tool and related TraBio product classification to provide UNCTAD member States and other stakeholders with public access to consistent, comparable, and comprehensive trade data related to products derived from biodiversity. The classification includes 1 814 different types of products derived from biodiversity resources -—
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—-. The most traded products reflect the crucial role of this trade in providing nutrition, medication and housing.
According to TraBio data, food and beverages constituted the largest category of global exports of biodiversity-based products with a 36.1 per cent share in 2022, valued at $1.2 trillion (Table 1). Pharmaceuticals saw a significant increase from 15 per cent in 2021 to over 17 per cent of such trade, amounting to $582.6 billion in 2022. Wood and derived products, along with natural fibers, jointly accounted for over 22 of the market, reaching a global value of $758.1 billion. Europe dominated the exports of these four product categories, holding nearly a 50 per cent share of the global exports in 2022.
Table 1. Increased importance of biodiversity-based pharmaceuticals among all biodiversity-based products’ exports in 2022| US$ millions 2022 | % of total biotrade 2022 | % change from 2011 | |
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| Food and beverage | 1 224 168.6 | 36.1 | 2.5 |
| Pharmaceuticals | 582 630.2 | 17.2 | 48.4 |
| Wood and derived products | 421 521.8 | 12.4 | -7.7 |
| Natural fibres and articles thereof | 336 577.8 | 9.9 | -29.4 |
| Natural ingredients | 293 666.5 | 8.7 | 8.3 |
| Perfumery, cosmetic, personal care and room care preparations | 137 707.6 | 4.1 | 37.1 |
| Miscellaneous | 129 692.1 | 3.8 | -10.2 |
| Agricultural inputs | 95 786.3 | 2.8 | 9.8 |
| Hides, skins, leather, furskins and products thereof | 62 840.8 | 1.9 | -33.4 |
| Other products of plant origin | 41 480.2 | 1.2 | -59.4 |
| Live animals and plants | 43 210.5 | 1.3 | -14.2 |
| Other products of animal origin | 17 370.0 | 0.5 | 3.8 |
| Vegetable plaiting materials and articles thereof | 6 692.8 | 0.2 | 6.3 |
Source: UNCTAD calculations based on UNCTADstat -—
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Note: Data refer to biotrade goods as identified by -—
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—-, based on HS codes.
UNCTAD Statistics provides interactive maps and charts3 that help visualize data on international trade balance, trends and on selected market indicators in a used-friendly and intuitive way.
UNCTAD’s work on trade and biodiversity, including its BioTrade Initiative
UNCTAD’s BioTrade Initiative -—
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—- with its Principles and Criteria -—
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—- reconciles the need for economic development with poverty alleviation as well as the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity, through trade in biodiversity-based products and services. These Principles and Criteria are guidelines being implemented and fostered by government organizations, and numerous stakeholders in over 80 countries in Asia, Africa, Americas, and Europe -—
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—-. Concrete examples of the benefits of implementing BioTrade are shown below.
- In Latin America, Colombia is implementing the National Sustainable BioTrade Programme since 1998 -—
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—-. For the period 2014-2023, the Colombian Green Business Office of the Ministry of Environment and Sustainable Development has supported over 3 900 BioTrade businesses in implementing the BioTrade Principles and Criteria through its Green and Sustainable Business Criteria -—
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—-. Thus, the Ministry’s actions on BioTrade are promoting local and productive development within value chains, while creating opportunities to generate positive environmental impacts and territorial knowledge. - In Asia, the Regional Biotrade project, implemented by Helvetas Swiss Intercooperation -—
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—-, is promoting sustainable production of biodiversity-based products in Viet Nam, Lao People’s Democratic Republic, Myanmar and Cambodia. The project works with 28 different value chains and 58 exporting companies. In Viet Nam alone, exports of BioTrade certified products have increased from $9 million to $138 million in just two years between December 2021 and December 2023, while investment of local companies in Biotrade increased from $29 thousand to nearly $7 million during the same period. - In Africa, the project BioInnovation Africa, implemented by the Deutsche Gesellschaft für Internationale Zusammenarbeit (GIZ) GmbH, supports the implementation of the BioTrade Principles and Criteria in Cameroon, Madagascar, Namibia and South Africa. In the current project phase, it involves 13 value chains, including marula, centella, beeswax, honeybush, rooibos, devil’s claw, among others -—
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—-. For the period 2019-2022, the project had supported the sustainable use of more than 320 000 ha of wild collection, mobilized more than €1.3 million through private sector investment, trained more than 150 stakeholders (48 per cent being women) on the valorization of genetic resources, biological ingredients and access and benefit sharing contracts, among others -—
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UNCTAD’s SECO-funded Global BioTrade Programme -—
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—- is also helping countries measure trade in biodiversity-based products through the UNCTAD trade and biodiversity (TraBio) statistical tool , which provides visualization and analytical tools in addition to databases. Exports of biodiversity-base products amounted to $3.7 trillion in 2021, which was equivalent to 17 per cent of global exports. This database helps identify opportunities for export growth, such as in the context of the recently signed AfCFTAAfrican Continental Free Trade Area. Intra-African trade in biodiversity-based products constituted more than one quarter of total intra-African trade on average between 2010 and 2022, while in Mauritania, Sudan and Ethiopia, this share was above 70 per cent (map 3).
Map 3. Mauritania, Sudan and Ethiopia exhibit highest shares of biodiversity-based products trade in AfricaSource: -—
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Note: Based on data reported as of 28 March 2024
Notes
- Referring to different size classes of plastic pollution: macroplastics, microplastics and nanoplastics -—
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—-. - This upsurge of plastics in global trade includes products made from plastic, like many children’s toys, products with plastic components, such as electronic gadgets and products wrapped in plastic – everything from office furniture to DVDs to snacks. It also includes the raw materials used to make plastics, mainly fossil fuels, and the waste shipped overseas that contain plastics, such as discarded smartphones.
- Trade in biodiversity-based products: https://unctadstat.unctad.org/EN/Biotrade.html
References
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